Japan has a higher concentration of scientists and engineers among its workforce than do other leading industrial countries (Figure 1). Japan's scientists and engineers are young, and concentrated in key industries, such as services, manufacturing, and construction (Figure 6). However, as of 1990, slightly less than half of Japan's scientists and engineers had earned at least a college degree. This may suggest that Japanese firms place greater emphasis on in-house training that is specific to each company's specific assignments than on formal education, or it may imply that the most challenging work is reserved for the more educated scientists and engineers. Males strongly predominate among scientists and engineers, accounting for 93 percent of all S/E (Zaslow, 1996, pp. 15, 16). Females are younger, and unlike males, are concentrated in the sciences (particularly computer processing).
Scientists and engineers are concentrated at younger ages.
Most scientists and engineers are in their mid-40's or younger. Nearly four-fifths (79 percent) of scientists and engineers are in this age group (Zaslow, 1996, p. 15). As such, scientists and engineers collectively are younger than the economically active work force in Japan (International Database).
Computer processing technicians, 96 percent of whom are no more than 44 years old, are the most heavily concentrated among the youngest age cohorts (Figure 2). Architects and mechanical, aircraft and shipbuilding engineers have the smallest share among the younger age cohorts, (68 percent and 69 percent, respectively) (Zaslow, 1996, p. 15).
Males are far more evenly distributed among the five year age cohorts than are females. Due to their numerical preponderance, males' distribution largely mirrors that for both sexes, while 78 percent of female scientists and engineers are age 29 or less (Zaslow, 1996, pp. 15, 16). Presumably, this is due to the recent entry of women into the scientist and engineer workforce, rather than the effects of childbearing, as female labor force participation rates for Japan recover from the low levels of the peak child-bearing years (ages 25-34), a pattern not seen among female scientists and engineers (Japan Statistical Yearbook 1995, p. 61; Economic Survey of Japan 1990 1991, p. 177; and Zaslow, 1996, p. 17).
Computer processing is the largest of the scientist and engineer fields.
Within the employment category "Scientists and Engineers (S/E)," employment is concentrated in five categories, with those engaged in computer processing predominating (Figure 3). Over 467,000 males and 90,000 females, accounting for 25 percent of the employed scientists and engineers, work in computer
processing. The other fields which have substantial shares of scientists and engineers are: architecture, civil and surveying engineering, electric and electronic
engineering, and mechanical, aircraft and shipbuilding engineering. Each of these accounts for at least 12 percent of all scientists and engineers, so that, all told, the five employment categories embrace 84 percent of all S/E or 1,872,086 engineers (Zaslow, 1996, p. 15). Since males comprise 93 percent of all Japanese scientists and engineers (Zaslow, 1996, pp. 18, 19), the male distribution by specialty is virtually identical to the combined sex distribution. Among females, there is a much greater concentration in computer processing than among males, since 63 percent of female S/E work in this field. Even so, females account for only 16 percent of all scientists and engineers in the field (Zaslow, 1996, pp. 18, 20).
The vast majority of scientists and engineers are employees.
Overall, 88 percent of scientists and engineers are employees: specifically, 96.5 percent of scientists and 84.7 percent of engineers (Figure 4). The remaining S/E are split almost evenly between directors and the self-employed, particularly among engineers (Zaslow, 1996, p. 18). In addition, a small share of engineers consists of unpaid family workers. The share of employees among females is appreciably higher than for males (97 percent versus 88 percent).
Service, manufacturing and construction dominate employment of scientists and engineers.
The vast majority (89 percent) of scientists and engineers work in the services, manufacturing and construction industries. More specifically, the service industries are the largest employers of scientists and engineers (39 percent), followed by manufacturing (29 percent), and construction (21 percent) (Zaslow, 1996, p. 21). Scientists are concentrated primarily among the service industries, and to a lesser extent in manufacturing, while engineers are more evenly distributed among services, manufacturing, and construction (Figure 5). Other industries employ minor shares of S/E. This pattern of scientist and engineer employment being concentrated among a few industries is also seen in the United States, where services, manufacturing, and government employed 90 percent of all scientists and engineers in 1992 (National Science Board, 1993, p. 326).
Japanese industries primarily employ engineers.
In their employment of scientists and engineers, most industries favor the latter (Figure 6). The fact that Japanese industries overwhelmingly hire engineers reflects the types of skills that each industry considers most relevant to improving its production processes or provision of services. The largest exceptions (in terms of their proportions of scientists and engineers) are the finance, insurance, and real estate sector, wholesale and retail trade, and services, each of which employs considerable numbers of computer processing technicians (Zaslow, 1996, p. 21).
Machinery and equipment, and chemicals are the largest employers of scientists and engineers in manufacturing.
Employment of scientists and engineers in manufacturing is concentrated within a few industries. Over one-half (52 percent) of scientists and engineers engaged in manufacturing work in the general and electric machinery and equipment industry, while another 15 percent work in the chemicals and related products industry (Zaslow, 1996, p. 24). The general and electric machinery and equipment industry accounts for nearly identical shares of manufacturing sector scientists (54 percent) and engineers (52 percent), as does the chemicals industry (15 percent of scientists and 14 percent of engineers) (Zaslow, 1996, p. 24). Besides these two manufacturing industries, the remaining manufacturing industries employ only minor smaller shares of either scientists or engineers.
Manufacturing industries favor employment of engineers.
Within the manufacturing sector, all branches hire more engineers than scientists (Figure 7). Engineers' share of scientist and engineer employment ranges from 55 percent in the paper, printing and publishing industry, to 88 percent in the transport equipment industry.
Within the service sector, two industries account for virtually all employment of scientists and engineers.
Nearly all S/E in the service industries (98 percent) work in two sectors: business services, and education and research (Zaslow, 1996, p. 27). Engineers are somewhat more heavily concentrated in the business services sector than are scientists (85 percent compared to 78 percent) (Figure 8).
Nearly half of S/E completed at least a college degree.
The largest number of scientists and engineers leave school after earning either a college or university degree, or after having completed graduate courses (without earning an advanced degree). In 1990, 48.3 percent of scientists and engineers reported that a college degree or higher was their highest level of educational attainment (Zaslow, 1996, p. 30). A slightly higher share of scientists than engineers had completed at least a college degree, 54.2 percent of scientists compared to 45.8 percent of engineers (Zaslow, 1996, p. 30). Almost no scientists and engineers were currently enrolled in formal education in 1990 (Figure 9).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dictionary of Occupational Titles, Volumes I and II, U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Fourth Edition, Washington, D.C., 1991.
Economic Survey of Japan 1990-1991, Economic Planning Agency, Japanese Government, 1991.
International Database. International Programs Center, U.S. Bureau of the Census.
Jamison, Ellen. "Scientists and Engineers in Industrialized Societies: Data Available As of 1992," CIR Staff Paper No. 68, Center for International Research, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C., 1992.
Japan Statistical Yearbook 1995, Statistics Bureau, Management and Coordination Agency, 1994.
Japan Statistics Bureau, 1995, The 1990 Population Census of Japan, Volume 5, Results of the Detailed Sample Tabulation, Part 1. Japan (Results of the 13 Percent Sample Tabulation).
National Science Board, Science & Engineering Indicators-1993. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993. (NSB 93-1)
Zaslow, David. "Scientists and Engineers in Australia: 1991," IPC Staff Paper No. 77. International Programs Center, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C., September 1995.
Zaslow, David. "Scientists and Engineers in Japan: 1990," IPC Staff Paper No. 81. International Programs Center, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C. April 1996.