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Income Working Papers

Working papers are intended to make results of Census Bureau research available to others and to encourage discussion on a variety of topics. They have not undergone a review and editorial process generally accorded official Census Bureau publications.

View the list of working paper topics.

View the list of working papers by year.

To find Working Papers for a specifc survey follow the links below:


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Working Paper
Health Inclusive Poverty Measure in the United States: 2022
This paper provides estimates of economic well-being using the Health Inclusive Poverty Measure for 2022.


Working Paper
2022 American Community Survey Content Test: Income
Results from the 2022 ACS Content Test of the questions about Income.


Working Paper
Alternative School Lunch Valuation in the 2022 Supplemental Poverty Measure
This paper describes the updated method for calculating and assigning school lunch values in the 2022 SPM.


Working Paper
Modeling State Tax Rebate Payments in the 2022 CPS ASEC
This paper summarizes state income tax rebates issued in 2022, inclusion of these payments in Census’s tax model, and impacts on post-tax income estimates.


Working Paper
Health Inclusive Poverty Measure Estimates in the United States: 2014 to 2021
This paper presents estimates of Health Inclusive Poverty in the United States from 2014 to 2021.


Income and Poverty
Identifying Gentrification Using Machine Learning
The paper explores machine learning techniques to identify housing units at high risk of gentrification in Washington D.C. Metropolitan Statistical Area.


Working Paper
Family Pies: Effects of Family Resource Shares in Childhood
Effects of birth order on various outcomes have been extensively studied in both life sciences and social sciences.


Working Paper
Methods and Assumptions of the CPS ASEC Tax Model
This paper details the methods and assumptions of the CPS ASEC Tax Model.


Working Paper
School Lunch and P-EBT Valuation in the 2021 SPM
This paper describes the updated method for calculating and assigning school lunch values in the 2021 SPM.


Working Paper
Unbanked and Impoverished? Exploring Banking and Poverty Interactions
Using three leading household surveys, this paper documents how the interaction between bank access and poverty has evolved over time.


Working Paper
Effects of 2020 Census-Based Population Controls on 2020 Estimates
This paper demonstrates the effect of using the 2020 Census-based population controls on the 2020 data by presenting key estimates using both the 2010 and 2020


Working Paper
Examining the Impact of Medical Expenses on Supplemental Poverty Rates
The paper examines the impact of deducting out-of-pocket medical expenses on Supplemental Poverty rates.


Working Paper
2022 ACS Content Test: Round 3 Cognitive Testing Results
This report summarizes results from Round 3 of cognitive testing, which gathered feedback from individuals in groups quarters facilities and Puerto Rico.


Working Paper
The Impact of Alternative Inflation Adjustments on CPS ASEC Income Statistics
This paper documents the implications of using chain type price indices to inflation adjust estimates of historical income and earnings statistics.


Working Paper
2022 ACS Content Test: Round 1 and Round 2 Cognitive Testing Results
This report summarizes results from two rounds of cognitive testing for the 2022 ACS Content Test.


Working Paper
Self-Employment Status: Imputations, Implications, and Improvements
A paper that examines the quality of self-employment imputation in Census surveys.


Working Paper
Using WIC Administrative Data to Evaluate the SPM
This paper links state administrative data on the WIC program to the CPS ASEC to assess the impact of WIC misreporting on the Supplemental Poverty Measure.


Working Paper
Addressing Nonresponse Bias in the ACS Using Administrative Data
Learn how the pandemic disrupted ACS data collection in 2020 and why the 2020 ACS 1-year estimates will be released as an experimental product.


Working Paper
Alternative School Lunch Valuation in the CPS ASEC During COVID-19
This paper describes the school lunch value calculations for the 2020 CPS ASEC, given changes to the school lunch program in response to COVID-19.


Working Paper
Imputing 2020 Economic Impact Payments in the 2021 CPS ASEC
Methods for imputing amounts of first- and second-round Economic Impact Payments in the 2021 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement.


Working Paper
The Geography of Opportunity over Time
We study the association between place (and place characteristics, such as poverty) and child outcomes has over time, including by race and gender.


Working Paper
Coronavirus Infects Surveys, Too: Survey Nonresponse Bias
This paper evaluates how response in the Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement (CPS ASEC) was affected by COVID-19.


Working Paper
Benchmarking the Redesigned Survey of Income and Program Participation
This poster compares estimates of social insurance and pension income in SIPP, National Income and Product Accounts, and administrative records.


Working Paper
The Administrative Income Statistics (AIS) Project: Research on the Use of Administrative Records to Improve Income and Resource Estimates
We review research on mis-reporting and non-response bias in income surveys. We discuss research needed to use administrative data to reduce these biases.


Working Paper
Are Bracket Responses Accurate?
This presentation assesses the accuracy of income bracket responses in the CPS ASEC by comparing these responses to linked IRS W-2 records.


Working Paper
Changes to Income Processing in the CPS ASEC
This presentation compares 2016 income estimates using the 2017 CPS ASEC Production and Research Files.


Working Paper
SPM Median Rent Index Excluding Housing Assistance Recipients
This paper evaluates the impact of excluding housing assistance recipients from the estimation of the index used to adjust thresholds for the SPM.


Working Paper
Deconstructing Poverty Rates among the 65 and Older Population
This paper investigates the underlying causes and explanations of the first increase in 6 years in poverty among individuals aged 65 and over using the SPM.


Unpacking Earnings of the Foreign-Born Workforce
Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America.


Working Paper
Using SNAP Admin Records and TRIM3 to Evaluate Poverty Measurement
In this paper, we link state SNAP administrative records and Transfer Income Model data to the CPS ASEC to examine two outcomes related to poverty measurement.


Working Paper
Capturing more than poverty: Free & reduced-price lunches and income
This paper investigates whether free and reduced-price lunch designations capture students’ household income and educational disadvantage.


Working Paper
2016 American Community Survey Content Test: Retirement Income
Results from the 2016 ACS Content Test of the question about Retirement Income.


Working Paper
Do Older Americans Have More Income Than We Think?
This paper reassesses income and poverty statistics for the population aged 65 and over using the CPS ASEC linked to IRS and SSA administrative records.


Working Paper
Measuring the Presence and Impact of Same-Sex Married Couples
Research on how estimates of poverty are impacted by treating same-sex married couples as separate or combined families.


Working Paper
Income Inequality Over Time: How Choice of a Metric Matters
This paper uses one-year estimates from the American Community Survey 2005 - 2015 to explore how household income inequality has changed over time.


Working Paper
Retirement Income of Women Working Longer
Despite women’s increased labor force attachment over the lifecycle, household surveys do not show increases in retirement income for women at older ages.

Page Last Revised - December 16, 2021
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